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Global Warming Effects on America

Sat, 09 May 2009 18:25:31 +0100

If drowning polar bears haven't convinced you that the climate is changing, perhaps the United States Government can be more persuasive. The U.S. Climate Change Science Program has issued a report on the impacts a changing climate is having on the American landscape. From the Washington Post:

The report, which runs 193 pages and synthesizes a thousand scientific papers, highlights how human-generated carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels have already translated into more frequent forest fires, reduced snowpack and increased drought, especially in the West.

This is a wake up call for citizens and policymakers alike. The effects of global warming are no longer part of a distant future scenario that we can fix when we get around to it. Already, according to the report, close to 60% of the animal species in our country have experienced some effects of a changing climate. The Department of Agriculture is already issuing warnings of increased risk of certain crop failure because of changed conditions.

All of this comes from the same administration that once encouraged more patience in verifying the science of global warming before taking policy action. This skeptical approach has given way to outright acknowledgment that global warming is real, it is man-made, and it is having effects on the United States. As floral blooming patterns and animal migrations change while forests burn and crops die, still some would say that we should do nothing.

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology Is Todays Choice & Our Future

Thu, 16 Apr 2009 15:52:26 +0100

Hydrogen Energy Conversion Using Fuel Cells

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology Holds Promise for the Hydrogen Economy

Fuel cells are one of the key enabling technologies for a future hydrogen economy. They have the potential to replace the internal combustion engine in vehicles and to provide power in stationary and portable power applications because they are energy-efficient, clean, and fuel-flexible. For transportation applications, DOE is focusing on direct hydrogen fuel cells, in which on-board storage of hydrogen is supplied by a hydrogen generation, delivery, and fueling infrastructure. For distributed generation fuel cell applications, the program focuses on near-term fuel cell systems running on natural gas or liquid petroleum gas and recognizes the longer term potential for systems running on renewable/alternate fuels. In addition to the transportation fuel cell application focus (i.e. direct hydrogen fuel cell vehicles) to reduce our nation’s dependence on imported petroleum, the program also supports stationary, portable power and auxiliary power applications in a limited fashion where earlier market entry would assist in the development of a fuel cell manufacturing base.

This DOE Hydrogen Program activity is focused on the conversion of hydrogen to electrical or thermal power and the use of hydrogen to power vehicles via polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, for auxiliary power units on vehicles, or for stationary applications. Phosphoric acid, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC), and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) R&D is also underway within DOE, although not directly under the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative since these technologies have a stronger tie to stationary usage than transportation.

PEM Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells

The Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy is working to lower the cost and improve the durability of PEM fuel cells. Current R&D activities focus on improving electro catalysts, membranes (both for ambient and high-temperature applications), and biopolar plate materials.

Basic Hydrogen Fuel Cell Research Programs

In Office of Science’s basic research program, the emphasis will be on defining the knowledge that enables new and novel materials to transcend the barriers for low-cost and high efficiency energy conversion applications. New and improved materials need to be developed for electrodes, electrolytes, membranes, and catalysts to enable new and novel fuel cell components and operating concepts. \

The Basic Scientific Research Behind the Future Hydrogen Economy

U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science Conducts Hydrogen Research

DOE’s Office of Science, through its Office of Basic Energy Sciences (BES), seeks to foster revolutionary advances in hydrogen production, delivery, storage, and conversion technologies to close the gap between today’s knowledge and technology and that required for a future hydrogen economy. Recent advances in nanosciences, catalysis, modeling, simulation, and bio-inspired approaches offer exciting new research opportunities for a variety of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. By emphasizing cross-cutting research directions, and promoting broad interdisciplinary efforts, strong coordination between the basic and applied sciences and cooperation among BES and the Offices of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Fossil Energy and Nuclear Energy, scientific breakthroughs in one area can be leveraged to advance progress in others.

This integrated approach will ensure that discoveries and related conceptual breakthroughs achieved in basic research programs will provide a foundation for the innovative design of materials and processes that will produce improvements in the performance, cost, and reliability of hydrogen production, storage, and use. The Department of Energy is confident basic research can help overcome technical challenges to a hydrogen economy.

The priority basic research areas identified in this report include:

Priority Research Areas for Hydrogen Production, Storage and Fuel Cells

Novel Materials for Hydrogen Storage

On-board hydrogen storage is considered to be the most challenging aspect for the successful transition to a hydrogen economy. Basic research is essential for identifying novel materials and processes that can provide potential breakthroughs needed to meet the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI) goals.

Complex hydrides. A basic understanding of the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of metal hydrides and chemical hydrides is needed.

Nanostructured materials. Tailored nanostructures need to be explored since nanophase materials offer promise for superior hydrogen storage due to short diffusion distances, new phases with better capacity, reduced heats of adsorption/desorption, faster kinetics, and surface states capable of catalyzing hydrogen dissociation.

Other materials. Research is needed to explore other novel storage materials, e.g., those based on nitrides, imides, and other materials that fall outside of metal hydrides, chemical hydrides, and carbon-based hydrogen storage materials.

Theory, modeling, and simulation. Theory, modeling, and simulation will enable (1) understanding the physics and chemistry of hydrogen interactions at the appropriate size scale and (2) the ability to simulate, predict, and design materials performance in service.

Novel analytical and characterization tools. Sophisticated analytical techniques are needed to meet the high sensitivity requirements associated with characterizing hydrogen-materials interactions while maintaining high specificity.

Membranes for Separation, Purification, and Ion Transport

Membranes that selectively transport atomic, molecular, or ionic hydrogen and oxygen are vital to the hydrogen economy as they purify hydrogen fuel streams, transport hydrogen or oxygen ions between electrochemical half-reactions, and separate hydrogen in electrochemical, photochemical, or thermo chemical production routes.

Integrated nanoscale architectures. The similar nanoscale dimensions of catalyst particles and of pores that transport fuel, ions, and oxygen hold promises to enable gas diffusion layers, catalyst support networks, and electrolytic membranes in fuel cells to be integrated into a single network for ion, electron, and gas transport.

Fuel cell membranes. Novel membranes with higher ionic conductivity, better mechanical strength, lower cost, and longer life are critical to the success of fuel cell technologies.

Theory, modeling, and simulation of membranes and fuel cells. The diversity of transport mechanisms and their dependence on local defect structure requires extensive theory, modeling and simulation to establish the basic principles and design strategies for improved membrane materials.

Design of Catalysts at the Nanoscale

Catalysis is vital to the success of the HFI owing to its roles in converting solar energy to chemical energy, producing hydrogen from water or carbon-containing fuels such as coal and biomass, and producing electricity from hydrogen in fuel cells. Catalysts can also increase the efficiency of the uptake and release of stored hydrogen with reduced need for thermal activation. Breakthroughs in catalytic research would impact the thermodynamic efficiency of hydrogen production, storage, and use, and thus improve the economic efficiency with which the primary energy sources — fossil, biomass, solar, or nuclear — serve our energy needs.

Nanoscale catalysts. Nanostructured materials — with high surface areas and large numbers of controllable sites that serve as active catalytic regions — open new opportunities for significantly enhancing catalytic activity and specificity.

Innovative synthetic techniques. Emerging technologies that allow synthesis at the nanoscale with atomic-scale precision will open new opportunities for producing tailored structures of catalysts on supports with controlled size, shape and surface characteristics. New, high-throughput innovative synthesis methods can be exploited in combination with theory and advanced measurement capabilities to accelerate the development of designed catalysts.

Novel characterization techniques. To fully understand complex catalytic mechanisms will require detailed characterization of the active sites; identification of the interaction of the reactants, intermediates and products with the active sites; conceptualization and, possibly, detection of the transition states; and quantification of the dynamics of the entire catalytic process.

Theory, modeling, and simulation of catalytic pathways. Close coupling between experimental observations and theory, modeling, and simulation will provide unprecedented capabilities to design more selective, robust, and impurity-tolerant catalysts for hydrogen production, storage, and use.

Solar Hydrogen Production

Efficient conversion of sunlight to hydrogen by splitting water through photovoltaic cells driving electrolysis or through direct photo catalysis at energy costs competitive with fossil fuels is a major enabling milestone for a viable hydrogen economy.

Nanoscale structures. The sequential processes of light collection, charge separation, and transport in photovoltaic and photo catalytic devices require nanoscale architectural control and manipulation. Light harvesting and novel photoconversion concepts. New strategies are needed to efficiently use the entire solar spectrum.

Organic semiconductors and other high performance materials. The organic semiconductors offer an inexpensive alternative to traditional semiconductors for photovoltaic and photo catalytic devices.

Theory, modeling, and simulation of photochemical processes. Theory and modeling are needed to develop a predictive framework for the dynamic behavior of molecules, complex photoredox systems, interfaces, and photo electrochemical cells.

Bio-inspired Materials and Processes

Fundamental research into the molecular mechanisms underlying biological hydrogen production is the essential key to our ability to adapt, exploit, and extend what nature has accomplished for our own renewable energy needs.

Enzyme catalysts. A fundamental understanding is needed of the structure and chemical mechanism of enzyme complexes that support hydrogen generation.

Bio-hybrid energy coupled systems. As more is understood about biocatalyst hydrogen production, there is the possibility that critical enzymes that are synthesized and employed by biological systems can be harvested and combined with synthetic materials to construct robust, efficient hybrid systems that are scalable to hydrogen production facilities.

Theory, modeling, and nanostructure design. Taking cues from these various natural processes, computational approaches may be employed for rational redesign of enzymes for improved hydrogen production, reduced sensitivity to inhibitors, and improved stability.

Department of Energy Program Contact:

Patricia M. Dehmer
Office of Basic Energy Sciences (SC-22)
U.S. Department of Energy
Washington, DC 20585-1290
301-903-3081

Economics of Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Understanding the Viability of the Future Hydrogen Economy

By Aaron Schwartz

Hydrogen is the most promising energy source to be used in future and as such the economics of hydrogen fuel cells are a quite important issue today. This paper targets the above issue and considers the following aspects: opportunity cost factors, supply and demand, role of government and impact on USA taxes concerned with economics of hydrogen fuel cells. The United States of America is the largest energy consumer in the world – it spent hundreds billion dollars on oil production and consumption, research and innovation in order to provide energy supply for the nation. But this money could be spent for the rapid development of hydrogen fuel cells and potentially provide cheap and effective energy abundance for the future through advanced technologies.

This is an example of opportunity cost or the cost of a forgone opportunity. Of course it is very difficult to make a more or less precise assessment of the opportunity cost concerning the oil and hydrogen energy sources in financial terms and that is why such assessment is not used in economics. But why is opportunity cost issue is so important and why it is raised ultimately? To answer these questions it is necessary to understand that growing needs of our society can not be satisfied because of lack of resources. Modern technologies allow to produce energy by extracting oil from the deepest entrails and of course such production is more expensive. Despite of growing prices on energy the demand grows also and increased demand increases prices even more. One day most people just could not afford using oil as a primary source of energy and it will result in economic crisis if another energy sources would not be mastered. For this reason scientists search new energy sources taking into consideration its price, availability and cleanness. Demand on one or another energy source depends on consumers’ income, tastes, wealth, inflationary expectations and future expectations. It means that hydrogen will be purchased only by those people who can afford it, who like it (from the point of ecology, convenience, prevalence etc), who need it (e.g. to fill up a car powered by hydrogen) etc.

If there would be a clear and marked trend to use hydrogen as the energy of future the demand would also increase because people would buy hydrogen powered cars and need fuel. Supply of hydrogen is affected by the following non-price factors: availability of resources and production techniques – if technology would be not too expensive but effective and based on the resources which are available in abundance then supply will be significant and vice versa; taxes and subsidies – if the government would establish very high tax rate on production or distribution of hydrogen then such business will not be profitable and fetching, in the opposite subsidies and low tax rate will cause supply increase by attracting investors.

The government plays an important role in the economics of hydrogen fuel cells. First of all, the U.S. government finances its own research programs on effective technologies of production, transportation and storage of hydrogen. By the way modern technologies allow quite affordable hydrogen production but the storage and transportation technologies are too expensive and it makes hydrogen not so attractive and perspective. In order to get new effective technologies government should stimulate commercial researchers and producers by instituting prizes, granting subsidies and lax credits, decreasing tax rates and providing discounts for them. In addition government can draw together the researchers and give them a basis for cooperation by organizing scientific conferences on the fuel issuer etc. Another way how a government can stimulate hydrogen research and application is by regulating tax rates on oil and gas production. High tax rate will cause a desire to use another energy sources and consequent research programs. Low tax rates will make no difference to energy producers so far.

Burning hydrogen is considered to be ecologically clean but its production is concerned with atmospheric pollution and this in turn requires regulation on governmental and legal basis, in other words, the allowed pollution amounts must be determined by the international law. In addition, the world community is not aware of all effects of burning and producing hydrogen processes and future researches may reveal new facts of pollution or other harmful effects and thus the law should make certain restrictions and limitations in accordance to which hydrogen producers are subjects to licensing and active government regulation.

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Oxygen Sensors and Cleaner Emissions

Thu, 16 Apr 2009 15:48:07 +0100

Oxygen Sensor Information

In response to several requests for more information about Oxygen (O2) sensors, perhaps the following information will help.

These procedures are only for self powered conventional sensors. Some very new cars are using a different style sensor that is powered. *Many* Oxygen sensors are replaced that are good to excellent. *Many* people don't know how to test them. They routinely last 50,000 or more miles, and if the engine is in good shape, can last the life of the car.

What does the O2 sensor do?

It is the primary measurement device for the fuel control computer in your car to know if the engine is too rich or too lean. The O2 sensor is active anytime it is hot enough, but the computer only uses this information in the closed loop mode. Closed loop is the operating mode where all engine control sensors including the Oxygen sensor are used to get best fuel economy, lowest emissions, and good power.

Should the O2 sensor be replaced when the sensor light comes on in your car?

Probably not, but you should test it to make sure it is alive and well. This assumes that the light you see is simply an emissions service reminder light and not a failure light. A reminder light is triggered by a mileage event or something like 2000 key start cycles. EGR dash lights usually fall into the reminder category. Consult your owners manual, auto repair manual, dealer, or repair shop for help on what your light means.

How do I know if my O2 sensor may be bad?

If your car has lost several miles per gallon of fuel economy and the usual tune up steps do not improve it. This *is not* a pointer to O2 failure, it just brings up the possibility. Vacuum leaks and ignition problems are common fuel economy destroyers. As mentioned by others, the on board computer may also set one of several failure "codes". If the computer has issued a code pertaining to the O2 sensor, the sensor and it's wiring should be tested. Usually when the sensor is bad, the engine will show some loss of power, and will not seem to respond quickly.

What will damage my O2 sensor?

Home or professional auto repairs that have used silicone gasket sealer that is not specifically labeled "Oxygen sensor safe", "Sensor safe", or something similar, if used in an area that is connected to the crankcase. This includes valve covers, oil pan, or nearly any other gasket or seal that controls engine oil. Leaded fuel will ruin the O2 sensor in a short time. If a car is running rich over a long period, the sensor may become plugged up or even destroyed. Just shorting out the sensor output wire will not usually hurt the sensor. This simply grounds the output voltage to zero. Once the wiring is repaired, the circuit operates normally. Undercoating, antifreeze or oil on the *outside* surface of the sensor can kill it. See how does an Oxygen sensor work.

Will testing the O2 sensor hurt it?

Almost always, the answer is no. You must be careful to not *apply* voltage to the sensor, but measuring it's output voltage is not harmful. As noted by other posters, a cheap voltmeter will not be accurate, but will cause no damage. This is *not* true if you try to measure the resistance of the sensor. Resistance measurements send voltage into a circuit and check the amount returning.

How does an O2 sensor work?

An Oxygen sensor is a chemical generator. It is constantly making a comparison between the Oxygen inside the exhaust manifold and air outside the engine. If this comparison shows little or no Oxygen in the exhaust manifold, a voltage is generated. The output of the sensor is usually between 0 and 1.1 volts. All spark combustion engines need the proper air fuel ratio to operate correctly. For gasoline this is 14.7 parts of air to one part of fuel. When the engine has more fuel than needed, all available Oxygen is consumed in the cylinder and gases leaving through the exhaust contain almost no Oxygen. This sends out a voltage greater than 0.45 volts. If the engine is running lean, all fuel is burned, and the extra Oxygen leaves the cylinder and flows into the exhaust. In this case, the sensor voltage goes lower than 0.45 volts. Usually the output range seen seen is 0.2 to 0.7 volts. The sensor does not begin to generate it's full output until it reaches about 600 degrees F. Prior to this time the sensor is not conductive. It is as if the circuit between the sensor and computer is not complete. The mid point is about 0.45 volts. This is neither rich nor lean. A fully warm O2 sensor *will not spend any time at 0.45 volts*. In many cars, the computer sends out a bias voltage of 0.45 through the O2 sensor wire. If the sensor is not warm, or if the circuit is not complete, the computer picks up a steady 0.45 volts. Since the computer knows this is an "illegal" value, it judges the sensor to not be ready. It remains in open loop operation, and uses all sensors except the O2 to determine fuel delivery. Any time an engine is operated in open loop, it runs somewhat rich and makes more exhaust emissions. This translates into lost power, poor fuel economy and air pollution. The O2 sensor is constantly in a state of transition between high and low voltage. Manufacturers call this crossing of the 0.45 volt mark O2 cross counts. The higher the number of O2 cross counts, the better the sensor and other parts of the computer control system are working. It is important to remember that the O2 sensor is comparing the amount of Oxygen inside and outside the engine. If the outside of the sensor should become blocked, or coated with oil, sound insulation, undercoating or antifreeze, (among other things), this comparison is not possible.

How can I test my O2 sensor?

They can be tested both in the car and out. If you have a high impedance volt meter, the procedure is fairly simple. It will help you to have some background on the way the sensor does it's job. Read how does an O2 sensor work first.

Testing O2 sensors that are installed

The engine must first be fully warm. If you have a defective thermostat, this test may not be possible due to a minimum temperature required for closed loop operation. Attach the positive lead of a high impedance DC voltmeter to the Oxygen sensor output wire. This wire should remain attached to the computer. You will have to back probe the connection or use a jumper wire to get access. The negative lead should be attached to a good clean ground on the engine block or accessory bracket. Cheap voltmeters will not give accurate results because they load down the circuit and absorb the voltage that they are attempting to measure. A acceptable value is 1,000,000 ohms/volt or more on the DC voltage. Most (if not all) digital voltmeters meet this need. Few (if any) non-powered analog (needle style) voltmeters do. Check the specs for your meter to find out. Set your meter to look for 1 volt DC. Many late model cars use a heated O2 sensor. These have either two or three wires instead of one. Heated sensors will have 12 volts on one lead, ground on the other, and the sensor signal on the third. If you have two or three wires, use a 15 or higher volt scale on the meter until you know which is the sensor output wire. When you turn the key on, do not start the engine. You should see a change in voltage on the meter in most late model cars. If not, check your connections. Next, check your leads to make sure you won't wrap up any wires in the belts, etc. then start the engine. You should run the engine above 2000 rpm for two minutes to warm the O2 sensor and try to get into closed loop. Closed loop operation is indicated by the sensor showing several cross counts per second. It may help to rev the engine between idle and about 3000 rpm several times. The computer recognizes the sensor as hot and active once there are several cross counts. You are looking for voltage to go above and below 0.45 volts. If you see less than 0.2 and more than 0.7 volts and the value changes rapidly, you are through, your sensor is good. If not, is it steady high (> 0.45) near 0.45 or steady low (< 0.45). If the voltage is near the middle, you may not be hot yet. Run the engine above 2000 rpm again. If the reading is steady low, add richness by partially closing the choke or adding some propane through the air intake. Be very careful if you work with any extra gasoline, you can easily be burned or have an explosion. If the voltage now rises above 0.7 to 0.9, and you can change it at will by changing the extra fuel, the O2 sensor is usually good. If the voltage is steady high, create a vacuum leak. Try pulling the PCV valve out of it's hose and letting air enter. You can also use the power brake vacuum supply hose. If this drives the voltage to 0.2 to 0.3 or less and you can control it at will by opening and closing the vacuum leak, the sensor is usually good. If you are not able to make a change either way, stop the engine, unhook the sensor wire from the computer harness, and reattach your voltmeter to the sensor output wire. Repeat the rich and lean steps. If you can't get the sensor voltage to change, and you have a good sensor and ground connection, try heating it once more. Repeat the rich and lean steps. If still no voltage or fixed voltage, you have a bad sensor. If you are not getting a voltage and the car has been running rich lately, the sensor may be carbon fouled. It is sometimes possible to clean a sensor in the car. Do this by unplugging the sensor harness, warming up the engine, and creating a lean condition at about 2000 rpm for 1 or 2 minutes. Create a big enough vacuum leak so that the engine begins to slow down. The extra heat will clean it off if possible. If not, it was dead anyway, no loss. In either case, fix the cause of the rich mixture and retest. If you don't, the new sensor will fail.

Testing O2 sensors on the workbench.

Use a high impedance DC voltmeter as above. Clamp the sensor in a vice, or use a plier or vice-grip to hold it. Clamp your negative voltmeter lead to the case, and the positive to the output wire. Use a propane torch set to high and the inner blue flame tip to heat the fluted or perforated area of the sensor. You should see a DC voltage of at least 0.6 within 20 seconds. If not, most likely cause is open circuit internally or lead fouling. If OK so far, remove from flame. You should see a drop to under 0.1 volt within 4 seconds. If not likely silicone fouled. If still OK, heat for two full minutes and watch for drops in voltage. Sometimes, the internal connections will open up under heat. This is the same a loose wire and is a failure. If the sensor is OK at this point, and will switch from high to low quickly as you move the flame, the sensor is good. Bear in mind that good or bad is relative, with port fuel injection needing faster information than carbureted systems. ANY O2 sensor that will generate 0.9 volts or more when heated, show 0.1 volts or less within one second of flame removal, AND pass the two minute heat test is good regardless of age. When replacing a sensor, don't miss the opportunity to use the test above on the replacement. This will calibrate your evaluation skills and save you money in the future.

The probe

The sensor element is a ceramic cylinder plated inside and out with porous platinum electrodes; the whole assembly is protected by a metal gauze. It operates by measuring the difference in oxygen between the exhaust gas and the external air, and generates a voltage or changes its resistance depending on the difference between the two. The sensors only work effectively when heated to approximately 800 °C (1,500 °F), so most newer lambda probes have heating elements encased in the ceramic to bring the ceramic tip up to temperature quickly when the exhaust is cold. The probe typically has four wires attached to it: two for the lambda output, and two for the heater power, although some automakers use a common ground for the sensor element and heaters, resulting in three wires. Earlier non-electrically-heated sensors had one or two wires.

Operation of the probe

Zirconia sensor

The zirconium dioxide, or zirconia, lambda sensor is based on a solid-state electrochemical fuel cell called the Nernst cell. Its two electrodes provide an output voltage corresponding to the quantity of oxygen in the exhaust relative to that in the atmosphere. An output voltage of 0.2 V (200 mV) DC represents a lean mixture. That is one where the amount of oxygen entering the cylinder is sufficient to fully oxidize the carbon monoxide (CO), produced in burning the air and fuel, into carbon dioxide (CO₂). A reading of 0.8 V (800 mV) DC represents a rich mixture, one which is high in unburned fuel and low in remaining oxygen. The ideal point is 0.45 V (450 mV) DC; this is where the quantities of air and fuel are in the optimum ratio, called the stoichiometric point, and the exhaust output mainly consists of fully oxidized CO₂.

The voltage produced by the sensor is so nonlinear with respect to oxygen concentration that it is impractical for the engine control unit (ECU) to measure intermediate values - it merely registers "lean" or "rich," and periodically adjusts the fuel/air mixture to keep the output of the sensor alternating between these two states. The time period chosen by the ECU to monitor the sensor and adjust the fuel/air mixture creates an inevitable delay, which makes this system less responsive than one using a linear sensor (see below). The shorter the time period, the higher the so-called "cross count" and the more responsive the system.

The zirconia sensor is of the "narrow band" type, referring to the narrow range of fuel/air ratios to which it responds.

Wideband zirconia sensor

A variation on the zirconia sensor, called the "wideband" sensor, was introduced by Robert Bosch in 1994 but is (as of 2006) used in only a few vehicles. It is based on a planar zirconia element, but also incorporates an electrochemical gas pump. An electronic circuit containing a feedback loop controls the gas pump current to keep the output of the electrochemical cell constant, so that the pump current directly indicates the oxygen content of the exhaust gas. This sensor eliminates the lean-rich cycling inherent in narrow-band sensors, allowing the control unit to adjust the fuel delivery and ignition timing of the engine much more rapidly. In the automotive industry this sensor is also called a UEGO (for Universal Exhaust Gas Oxygen) sensor. UEGO sensors are also commonly used in aftermarket dyno tuning and high-performance driver air-fuel display equipment. The wideband zirconia sensor is used in stratified fuel injection systems, and can now also be used in diesel engines to satisfy the forthcoming EURO and ULEV emission limits.

You must have clear that there are three elements in the sensor.

1.- the "Ion Oxygen" pump - Controlled by Current from the ECM
2.- the two steps lambda traditional sensor - narrow sensor
3.- The Heater, controlled by ECM & rise the T° up from when the sensor will start working.

So you normally have six wires.
1 & 2: negative & positive for the heater (controlled by negative)
3: ground
4: pump
5: narrow sensor
6: calibration resistor (located in the sensor)

Titania sensor

A less common type of narrow-band lambda sensor has a ceramic element made of titanium dioxide (titania). This type does not generate its own voltage, but changes its electrical resistance in response to the oxygen concentration. The resistance of the titania is a function of the oxygen partial pressure and the temperature. Therefore, some sensors are used with a gas temperature sensor to compensate for the resistance change due to temperature. The resistance value at any temperature is about 1/1000th the change in oxygen concentration. Luckily, at lambda = 1, there is a large change of oxygen, so the resistance change is typically 1000 times between rich and lean, depending on the temperature.

As titania is an N-type semiconductor with a structure TiO2-x, the x defects in the crystal lattice conduct the charge. So, for fuel-rich exhaust the resistance is low, and for fuel-lean exhaust the resistance is high. The control unit feeds the sensor with a small electrical current and measures the resulting voltage across the sensor, which varies from near 0 volts to about 5 volts. Like the zirconia sensor, this type is so nonlinear that in practice it is used simply as a binary "rich or lean" indicator. Titania sensors are more expensive than zirconia sensors, but they also respond faster.

In automotive applications the titania sensor, unlike the zirconia sensor, does not require a reference sample of atmospheric air to operate properly. This makes the sensor assembly easier to design against water contamination. While most automotive sensors are submersible, zirconia-based sensors require a very small supply of reference air from the atmosphere. In theory, the sensor wire harness and connector are sealed. Air that leaches through the wire harness to the sensor is assumed to come from an open point in the harness - usually the ECU which is housed in an enclosed space like the trunk or vehicle interior.

GLOBAL WARMING - "Already Affecting Alaska"

Thu, 16 Apr 2009 15:44:17 +0100

Global Warming Puts the Arctic on Thin Ice
Answers to questions about the shrinking ice cap and its global significance.

1. Why are global warming specialists watching the so closely?

Is the global warming's canary in the coal mine. It's a highly sensitive region, and it's being profoundly affected by the changing climate. Most scientists view what's happening now in the as a harbinger of things to come.

2. What kinds of changes are taking place in the now?

Average temperatures in the Arctic region are rising twice as fast as they are elsewhere in the world. Arctic ice is getting thinner, melting and rupturing. For example, the largest single block of ice in the Arctic, the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf, had been around for 3,000 years before it started cracking in 2000. Within two years it had split all the way through and is now breaking into pieces.

The polar ice cap as a whole is shrinking. Images from NASA satellites show that the area of permanent ice cover is contracting at a rate of 9 percent each decade. If this trend continues, summers in the Arctic could become ice-free by the end of the century.

3. How does this dramatic ice melt affect the Arctic?

The melting of once-permanent ice is already affecting native people, wildlife and plants. When the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf splintered, the rare freshwater lake it enclosed, along with its unique ecosystem, drained into the ocean. Polar bears, whales, walrus and seals are changing their feeding and migration patterns, making it harder for native people to hunt them. And along Arctic coastlines, entire villages will be uprooted because they're in danger of being swamped. The native people in the Arctic view global warming as a threat to their cultural identity and their very survival.

4. Will Arctic ice melt have any effects beyond the polar region?

Yes -- the contraction of the Arctic ice cap is accelerating global warming. Snow and ice usually form a protective, cooling layer over the Arctic. When that covering melts, the earth absorbs more sunlight and gets hotter. And the latest scientific data confirm the far-reaching effects of climbing global temperatures.

Rising temperatures are already affecting, where the spruce bark beetle is breeding faster in the warmer weather. These pests now sneak in an extra generation each year. From 1993 to 2003, they chewed up 3.4 million acres of Alaskan forest.

Melting glaciers and land-based ice sheets also contribute to rising sea levels, threatening low-lying areas around the globe with beach erosion, coastal flooding, and contamination of freshwater supplies. (Sea level is not affected when floating sea ice melts.) At particular risk are island nations like the Hawaiian Islands; over half of that nation's populated islands lie less than 6 feet above sea level. Even major cities like and would face similar problems, as they also lie just six feet above present water levels.

Rising seas would severely impact the as well. Scientists project as much as a 3-foot sea-level rise by 2100. According to a 2001 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency study, this increase would inundate some 22,400 square miles of land along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, primarily in Louisiana, Texas, Florida and North Carolina.

A warmer will also affect weather patterns and thus food production around the world. Wheat farming in the United States, for example, would be profoundly affected by the loss of ice cover in the Arctic. According to a NASA Goddard Institute of Space Studies computer model, would be 4 degrees warmer in the winter without Arctic ice, which normally creates cold air masses that frequently slide southward into the U.S... Warmer winters are bad news for wheat farmers, who need freezing temperatures to grow winter wheat. And in summer, warmer days would rob soil of 10 percent of its moisture, drying out valuable cropland.

5. Can we do anything to stop global warming?

Yes. When we burn fossil fuels -- oil, coal and gas -- to generate electricity and power our vehicles, we produce the heat-trapping gases that cause global warming. The more we burn, the faster churns the engine of global climate change. Thus the most important thing we can do is save energy.

And we can do it. Technologies exist today to make cars that run cleaner and burn less gas, generate electricity from wind and sun, modernize power plants, and build refrigerators, air conditioners and whole buildings that use less power. As individuals, each of us can take steps to save energy and fight global warming.

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Solving Global Warming is Imperative

Thu, 16 Apr 2009 15:40:01 +0100

The Tipping Point

The time to put global warming solutions into place is now.

We can't wait any longer. Scientists say we need to turn the corner on global warming within 10 years to prevent very dangerous impacts from becoming inevitable. Each year that passes without tackling global warming head-on makes the problem more difficult and expensive to solve.

But at the same time, global warming has finally gotten our attention -- Americans are increasingly aware that a warming climate is a real threat to our way of life, and that we have a choice about how bad it will get.

The choice lies here: $16 trillion dollars will be invested in energy development over the next two decades. Will it be poured into polluting, obsolescent technologies that will bring on the worst of global warming? Or will these investments be shifted into to advanced, low-polluting technologies that will create the new energy economy that's needed to shut down global warming?

It's up to all of us to increase the heat on our elected officials: we need the right policies -- and we need them now -- to ensure that the technologies described here are deployed on the scale and timeframe that is needed to achieve deep reductions in global warming pollution by mid-century.

1. Boost Energy Efficiency

The cheapest and fastest way to cut global warming pollution is to make things that use electricity -- like appliances, industrial equipment and buildings -- more energy-efficient. We know this works -- most of us have bought an Energy Star appliance or two, and have seen firsthand how much money and energy they can save. But there's still much room for improvement, and we must continue to push for products that waste less energy. Likewise, "green building" design and construction can dramatically reduce the enormous amounts of energy that buildings consume in heating, cooling, lighting and water use.

2. Better Cars and Smart Growth

Our gasoline-burning cars are the second-largest source of U.S. global warming pollution. But Americans will put more than 300 million new cars on the road over the next 20 years -- if these cars are the best, most efficient vehicles Detroit can make, we'll take a big step toward solving global warming.

Using hybrid engines and other ready-to-go technologies in today's cars could nearly double the mileage they'd get from a gallon of gas, saving a lot of money at the pump. By 2050, fuel-cell technologies and other advancements could boost efficiency to 54 miles per gallon.

We can curb our appetite for oil even further by adopting "smart growth" principles in our cities and towns, encouraging developers to build compact, walkable communities that allow people to spend less time behind the wheel.

3. Biofuels and Renewable Energy

Business-friendly, cost-competitive and ready to meet a significant portion of America's energy needs, renewable energy has gone mainstream. Wind power is the fastest growing form of electricity generation in the United States, expanding at an average annual rate of more than 20 percent. Solar energy employs more than 20,000 Americans in high-tech, high-paying jobs. And clean-burning biofuels made from plants show great promise as a replacement for gasoline -- ethanol producers already make 4 billion gallons of fuel a year, and new methods for making ethanol from farm wastes or energy crops could compete with oil on a very large scale in addition to providing extra income for farmers. By 2050, renewable energy and biofuels could meet a significant chunk of our energy needs.

4. Return Carbon to the Ground

Coal is the most carbon-intense of fossil fuels. Reducing use of coal through energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies will be the cornerstones of the solution to global warming, but the plain truth is that hundreds of new coal-fired power plants will probably be constructed around the world in coming years. Coal generates more than half of the electricity we use today, and it is in plentiful supply in such countries as China, India and the United States.

A critical choice remains. Power plants have a long lifespan -- build the new coal plants with dirty, 19th-century technologies and we lock ourselves into high levels of global warming pollution for decades. We can instead choose a 21st-century alternative: Using existing technologies -- each in commercial operation today -- we can convert coal into a clean-burning gas and capture and dispose of the carbon dioxide deep underground, dramatically reducing air pollution from this dirtiest of fuels. If the United States doesn't invest in this technology, neither will China, India and other countries with large coal supplies.

Greenhouse Gas. What is Greenhouse Gas?

Thu, 16 Apr 2009 15:36:45 +0100

They're in the news almost as much as Brad and Angelina, and you know they have something to do with global warming. But what exactly is a greenhouse gas? In a nutshell, they're gases in the atmosphere—both naturally occurring and caused by humans—that absorb and emit radiation.

Ultraviolet radiation and sunlight hit the Earth and its atmosphere. Most of this is reflected back into outer space, thanks to the ozone layer, clouds, and ice on the Earth's surface. Approximately 25 percent is absorbed by the planet, and is then re-emitted as infrared radiation. Some of this re-emitted radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, exciting the molecules and causing them to emit the radiation back to the planet again, as heat.

The more of these gas molecules there are in the atmosphere, the more infrared radiation can be absorbed and sent back to the Earth's surface. Increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the air will result in an increase of infrared radiation being trapped and re-emitted.

The greenhouse gases that we have the widest understanding about are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs, used for aerosols). CO₂ currently contributes the most to the greenhouse effect – the amount of radiation being trapped and re-emitted by greenhouse gases – but the other gases combined will soon be as important to the greenhouse effect as CO₂.

These gases are increasing in concentration in the atmosphere, and they have higher rates of absorption of infrared radiation. CFCs, for instance, can absorb 20,000 times as much heat as CO₂. However, international decisions to curb CFC emissions have helped stabilize CFC levels in the air.

Greenhouse gases are not, inherently, a bad thing. In fact, they help make this planet livable. Without them, the average temperature of the Earth's surface would be slightly less than 0 degrees Fahrenheit! With the greenhouse effect, the average surface temperature is 59 degrees Fahrenheit. But the growing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has the power to raise the average temperature.

Stimulus Package Means Payroll, Benefit Changes for Small Business

Thu, 16 Apr 2009 15:27:33 +0100

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act requires small business owners to consider and implement multiple changes to their tax withholding, reporting, and record-keeping procedures for employees.

Here's a rundown of HR-related provisions that made the final cut in the stimulus bill:

COBRA Subsidy

COBRA allows workers who have their health benefits to continue coverage through the group plan for up to 18 months. Historically, the cost of COBRA continuation coverage is borne 100 percent by the employee.

The new law provides for a 65-percent subsidy of certain employees’ COBRA premiums for nine months. The subsidy will be available to any employee involuntarily terminated (with exceptions, like gross misconduct) from employment between September 1, 2008, and December 31, 2009.

But the government won't write checks to former employees to cover the 65-percent subsidy. Employers will have to absorb the cost, and then apply for a credit against payroll taxes to recover the funds.

The employee would remain responsible for the other 35 percent of the COBRA premiums. Employers will have to amend their COBRA notices to include information about the availability of this subsidy.

Importantly, this subsidy is to be applied retroactively. Employees who were involuntarily terminated on or after September 1, 2008, but before the enactment of the stimulus bill, and who did not previously elect COBRA coverage, must be given an additional 60-day window to elect COBRA and benefit from the subsidy. If an employee elects COBRA after receiving the new notice, coverage would begin on February 17, not on the date of the actual termination.

Companies with 20 or more employees (COBRA's coverage limit) must heed these changes. COBRA notices need to be amended for the remainder of 2009, and any employee involuntarily severed between September 1, 2008, and February 17, 2009, will have to be notified of the subsidy.

Contact your health insurance carrier for more information on exactly how this will work.

Note: The ARRA also includes a provision allowing group health plans to offer a variety of COBRA coverages, so former employees may be able to choose a policy different from the ones you offer current employees. The law also requires that you include information about the subsidy in your COBRA notices.

Making Work Pay Tax Credit

This is the tax-cut part of the legislation. Rather than getting the tax cut in a lump sum as in the past, most eligible people will get it gradually--a little less will be withheld from each paycheck for federal income tax. Generally, single taxpayers will get an additional $400 per year in the 2009 and 2010 tax years. Married couples that file jointly will get $800 per year.

The Internal Revenue Service has published new tax-withholding tables that incorporate the credit and has asked employers to start using them no later than April 1. The amount of the credit must be reported on the employee's 2009 income tax return filed in 2010.

The IRS says the new withholding tables, along with other instructions related to the new tax law, will be incorporated in the new Publication 15-T, which will be posted to the IRS Web site and mailed to more than 9 million employers in mid-March. The IRS has requested that employers start using the new tables as soon as possible but not later than April 1.

Employees are not required to make changes to W-4 forms but be prepared to help employees figure out whether they need to make further withholding adjustments.

Many higher-income taxpayers will see little or no change in their take-home pay. That's because the Making Work Pay credit is phased out for a married couple filing a joint return whose modified adjusted gross income (AGI) is between $150,000 and $190,000 and other taxpayers whose modified AGI is between $75,000 and $95,000.

Unemployment Compensation

This provision allows high unemployment states to provide up to 13 to 20 weeks of additional extended benefits to workers who run out of federal funded unemployment benefits. Currently, there are 20 to 33 weeks of benefits for workers who run out of their state unemployment, so this plan, if adopted by the states, would provide additional weeks of federally funded benefits. States need to qualify for the funding, based on the level of unemployment.

The law uses financial incentives to encourage states to give cash benefits to new categories of unemployed workers, including people in training programs, those looking for part-time work and people who leave their jobs for a “compelling family reason,” such as domestic violence or the illness of an immediate family member. Some states already offer such generous eligibility guidelines.

Funding for additional unemployment compensation will come from the U.S. Treasury, not the Federal Unemployment Tax Act surtax that all employers pay.

Since unemployment compensation systems differ from state to state, expect some confusion as implementation plans firm up.

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Where is my Economic Stimulus check?

Thu, 16 Apr 2009 15:22:02 +0100

Since President Obama signed the economic-stimulus package into law February 17, I have received many questions about its provisions. And I've noticed that there are a lot of misconceptions about the plan. Here's the lowdown.

Misconception #1: Most people will get their stimulus money as a check this year.

Instead of receiving a check from the government, most single taxpayers will see an adjustment to their tax withholding in their paychecks in 2009 and 2010, giving them about $45 extra per month for the rest of this year (married workers will receive an extra $65). If you're self-employed, you can adjust your quarterly tax payments to benefit from the tax credit. Then you will claim the credit when you file your 2009 tax return next spring, bringing your tax bill in line with your reduced payments.

The stimulus also provides a one-time payment of $250 to recipients of Social Security, Railroad Retirement and Veterans Administration benefits.(People who applied for any of these benefits for the first time after January 31 don't get the money; only those on the rolls in November and December 2008 and January 2009 are eligible.) You'll get the money electronically or by check, depending on how you receive those benefits. Retired government employees who don't receive Social Security will also get a $250 credit when they file their 2009 returns.

Misconception #2: The adjustment to withholding will have to be paid back when you file your tax return next year.

Wrong -- the stimulus is actually a tax credit of 6.2% of taxable wages in 2009 and 2010, to a maximum each year of $400 for single taxpayers and $800 for married couples filing jointly. The credit is refundable, which means that you can still receive the full credit even if it is worth more than your total tax liability.

Paychecks are being adjusted now to get more money into the economy faster. You'll claim the credit when you file your return next year, so your tax bill should adjust in line with the stimulus money (and you might get some extra money at tax time if your withholding wasn't adjusted enough to account for the extra credit during the year, which may happen for some married people in single-earner households).

But not everyone qualifies for the credit. It begins to phase out for single filers with adjusted gross incomes of $75,000 or higher, or $150,000 for married couples filing jointly, and it disappears entirely for single filers with AGIs of $95,000 or more, or $190,000 for joint filers.

Misconception #3: The first-time home buyer's credit needs to be repaid.

You may not have to repay the credit, depending on when you bought the house.

If you buy a house between January 1, 2009, and December 1, 2009, you could receive a credit for 10% of the home's purchase price, up to $8,000. This credit does not have to be repaid as long as you own the home for at least three years.

If you bought a first home between April 9, 2008, and December 31, 2008, you are eligible for a tax credit of 10% of the home's purchase price, up to $7,500 -- but the credit must be repaid over 15 years, starting two years after you claim the credit. If you sell the home before you finish paying back the credit, the balance is due in full the year of the sale.

The 2008 and 2009 credits begin to phase out if your modified adjusted gross income is more than $75,000 (or $150,000 if you're married filing jointly). The credit disappears entirely after your income reaches $95,000 if you're single, or $170,000 if married filing jointly. You are considered a first-time home buyer if you (and your spouse, if you are married) didn't own a primary residence in the past three years. The credit does not apply to rental property and vacation homes.

Misconception #4: You can't get the 2009 first-time home-buyer tax credit until you file your tax return next year.

Actually, taxpayers who buy a first home in 2009 do not need to wait until they file their 2009 return (by April 15, 2010) to benefit from the credit. To get the money into the economy faster, the federal government is giving you a choice of claiming the first-time home-buyer credit on either your 2008 or your 2009 tax return.

There's actually a way to benefit from the credit even before you buy your first home. If you plan to buy by the November 31 deadline, you can reduce your withholding on your paychecks right away. The increased take-home pay could help you with the down payment. File a new W-4 form with your employer to adjust your withholding. (And remember to re-adjust your withholding again next year.)

If you have already filed your 2008 return, you can use Form 1040X to amend it. If you purchase a first home after the 2008 tax-filing deadline of April 15, 2009, you can still claim the credit on your 2008 tax return either by requesting a six-month extension for filing your return (which doesn't extend the deadline for paying any taxes owed) or by filing an amended return.

Misconception #5: You need to apply through the government to get the COBRA health-care subsidy.

Contact your former employer, not the government, to take advantage of the COBRA subsidy. If you were laid off since September 1, 2008, and are already receiving COBRA coverage, then you'll pay 35% of the COBRA health-insurance premiums, and your former employer will pay the remaining 65%. The government will then reimburse your former employer for the subsidy through a payroll tax credit.

If you were laid off on September 1, 2008, or later but didn't sign up for COBRA coverage, you'll get a second chance to elect COBRA and benefit from the subsidy. You should receive a notice from your former employer soon, or contact your former employer to find out about the steps for signing up.

Misconception #6: You can receive the COBRA subsidy the entire time you're covered by COBRA.

Federal law requires most companies with 20 or more employees to let former employees keep group health-insurance coverage for up to 18 months after they leave their jobs. But the 65% COBRA subsidy lasts for only nine months. After that, the premiums will jump back to the full price - and the average employer health-insurance plan costs $12,680 per year for family coverage, according to the Kaiser Family Foundation.

If you have health issues, COBRA may still be your best bet despite the hefty price tag. But many people can find a better deal by buying their own health insurance. You can get price quotes for individual policies at eHealthInsurance.com, or find a local health-insurance agent at the National Association of Health Underwriters Web site. Check out your options at least one month before your COBRA subsidy expires so you'll have plenty of time to find out how much an individual policy would cost.

The subsidy ends if you find a job and your new employer offers health-care coverage or you become eligible for Medicare. And COBRA does not apply if the company stops offering health coverage to current employees or shuts down entirely.

Misconception #7: The number of weeks you can receive emergency unemployment benefits has been extended.

The stimulus does not provide additional weeks of benefits for people who use their 33 weeks of emergency unemployment-compensation benefits; it just expands the dates that the program will be available.

A federal law passed last year provides an extra 20 weeks of emergency unemployment compensation to workers who exhausted their regular unemployment benefits, plus an additional 13 weeks of extended benefits for residents of states with high unemployment rates (contact your state unemployment-benefits office for details about your state's rules).

The emergency unemployment-compensation program was scheduled to expire on August 27, 2009, and the last day to apply for benefits was originally set to be March 31, 2009. As a result of the stimulus law, unemployed people who exhaust their regular state benefits now have until December 31, 2009, to apply for extended benefits and can receive compensation until May 31, 2010.

Economic Depression - Will it last? - Will it get Worse? - How To Survive?

Thu, 16 Apr 2009 15:03:46 +0100

Brace yourself, . What if the already terrible economy gets even worse? And not just a little bit worse, but a lot worse? Look at it this way: If you put a group of brainiac economists together in a room and told them to create a computer model of a Great Depression 2.0, the key ingredients would probably be a) plunging stock prices, b) collapsing home values, c) soaring unemployment, and d) a banking system on the verge of complete implosion. And do we have all those terrible factors in play today? Check, check, check and check. But there are also some big positives to counterbalance those huge negatives, such as a Federal Reserve that is lowering interest rates and printing money, as well as trillion-dollar government plans to stimulate the economy and keep people in their homes.

But things can get a lot nastier without reaching a total Great Depression scenario where the economy shrinks by 25 percent and unemployment soars by 25 percent. So just how bad might the economy get? And if there is a mini-depression, what should you do about it? Your questions, our answers.

Give it to me straight — where's this economy heading? There are some positive signs out there. Really. A highly respected economic model from the Federal Reserve Bank of predicts the recession, already 16 months old, will end this year. And White House economists are predicting a strong rebound over the next three years. But many private forecasters are far gloomier, predicting tepid growth going forward for several years and unemployment rising to at least 10 percent next year and staying elevated. This is the "long recession" scenario, similar to what happened in after its real estate and banking crisis in the 1990s. Certainly, the battered stock market is giving few signs that investors see brighter days ahead. Research by economist Robert Barro has found that big market drops raise the probability of an outright depression, defined as a GDP drop of 10 percent or more. As Barro concludes: "The stock-market crashes of 2008-09 in the and other countries provide ample reason for concern about depression."

How can I keep my job? Workers are spending an average of 2.8 hours each day worrying about job security, according to a recent survey. Here's a tip: worrying about it won't save it. This downturn is your cue is to stick your head out and become a somebody: lead a project, suggest an overhaul, work overtime, and develop relationships at work. If you're stuck in a job with little upward mobility, the best career move may be to head back to school while the opportunity cost is smallest. "It's time to take that hit," says Peter Morici, an economist at the . Just get a degree with obvious payback at a good institution: "Go to a school with brand loyalty among employers in the region where you want to find a job," Morici says. If you're out of work but not interested in going back to school, you may best survive the recession by taking a job at a lower pay grade. While on the hunt, consider offering to work part-time for free in an industry you're hoping to learn, suggests Katy Piotrowski, author of The Career Coward's Guide to Career Advancement. Free work is a boon to a struggling company, and you'll only add to your skills, your resume, and your contacts.

My home has already lost a lot of value. Can it really fall much further? Home prices at the national level have already plunged nearly 27 percent from their 2006 peaks, and Richard Moody, the chief economist of Mission Residential, expects values to drop another 10 to 15 percent before bottoming out in the middle of 2010. Although he's not predicting it, if the ongoing recession evolves into a full-blown depression, home prices could fall an additional 25 to 30 percent on top of that, Moody says. That's because a sharply higher unemployment rate would pull many would-be buyers out of the market. At the same time, the dysfunctional credit markets associated with a depression scenario could prevent many buyers with sufficient incomes and solid payment histories from obtaining mortgage financing. The result: "more significant drops in sales, prices and construction," Moody says. If so, more folks will be checking out the government's new foreclosure prevention plan, especially if your debt-to-income ratio is above 31 percent, and your mortgage is more than your home is worth.

What is someone in their 30s or 40s to do now that their 401(k) is a 201(k)? The good news is that you still have decades of compounding growth ahead of you. The bad news is that a 20 percent or 30 percent blow to your portfolio means postponing nearer-term financial goals like buying a house or taking that around-the-world trip. Assuming you have a stocked emergency fund, keep funneling money into your 401(k). If you can, kick those contributions up a notch to take advantage of the market's fire-sale prices, says Russell Fox of Apex Wealth Management Group: "Generally someone who's 40 doesn't have the largest nest egg they'll ever have, so they're not in a situation where preservation is the top priority."

It's also soul-searching time. Find out why you set up your portfolio the way you did, taking into account risk and time horizon. Then, with Terminator-like resolve, stick to your guns (allocations). "Nervous investors should at least continue building the bond portion of their portfolio, then tiptoe back into equities," says Ronald Rogé, CEO of advisory firm R. W. Rogé&Co.;

And what if you're in the retirement "red zone" and don't have decades to rebuild your portfolio? The idea of working during the traditional retirement years isn't much fun, but it is practical. One of the best ways to give your retirement accounts a boost is to work another year or two. It will take the typical employee with 20 or more years on the job an extra 1.8 years working to recover recent market losses, according to calculations by Jack VanDerhei, research director of the Employee Benefit Research Institute. Delaying claiming Social Security also produces higher payouts. Benefit checks increase by approximately 7 to 8 percent for each year you delay claiming between age 62 and 70. And because Social Security is calculated based on your 35 highest earning years, each year you work in your 60s (assuming you earn more now than you did in your 20s) will further boost your checks in retirement. If you have already retired, it is more difficult to recoup market losses. But at least seniors over age 70 1/2 will not be required to take distributions from IRAs, 401(k)s, and 403(b)s in 2009, which will allow retirees who don't need to tap their nest eggs an opportunity to avoid selling low.

OK, I'm going to totally hunker down and save like crazy. Any suggestions? Consider extreme saving. Buying in bulk, making your own coffee, and freezing leftovers are all ways to cut your grocery bill down to under $7 a day. But by taking saving to the next level, only buying sale items, staying away from brand loyalty, and using coupons for most purchases, you can actually save up to $1,500 a month. Ashley Nuzzo, creator of the Frugal Coupon Mom website, uses a three-ring binder to keep track of her coupons, and typically cuts her shopping bill by more than half. In December, for example, she spent $711 and brought home $2,200 worth of food — much of which she ended up donating.

About a depression is depressing. What can I do about that? Hey, don't worry. Be happy. It's hard to be grateful for what you have when your 401(k) lost most of its value and you have no savings, but it's probably the best thing you can do for your mental health. Sonja Lyubomirsky, professor of psychology at the University of California-Riverside and author of The How of Happiness: A Scientific Approach to Getting the Life You Want, suggests cultivating a sense of appreciation through something like a gratitude journal, where you write down three to five things for which you are thankful. If you lost your job, think of other dreams that have come true, such as living in the city you want or marrying the right partner. "It's not trivializing what's happening, but trying not to focus on it all the time," says Lyubomirsky.

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Economy Much Worse Than Roubini Predicted

Thu, 16 Apr 2009 15:00:38 +0100

Fed Chairman Bernanke raised eyebrows (and, briefly, the market) last week when said there's a "reasonable prospect" the economy will bottom this year and be in recovery in 2010.

But Berkshire Hathaway's Warren Buffett disagrees: The economy "will be in shambles throughout 2009 and...probably well beyond," the Oracle of Omaha declared this weekend.

In sum, Buffett and much of the rest of humanity are just now coming around to Nouriel Robuini's way of thinking, the economist known as "Dr. Doom" is upping the ante on his longstanding bearish views.

A year ago Roubini was forecasting an 18-month recession with a U-shaped recovery; now, he's now expecting the downturn to last at least 24 months and possibly 36-months. He also sees rising risks of a Japanese-style L-shaped stagnation, i.e. a prolonged period with little or no economic growth.

"I was one of most bearish people [but] the economy has surprised the bears on the downside," says Roubini of NYU's Stern School and RGE Monitor. "What's happening in the world now is scary."

Indeed, while the U.S. economy contracted 6.2% in the fourth-quarter, Roubini's main concern is economic activity in much of the rest of the world is in much worse shape. And while he is often critical of U.S. policymakers - including over the stimulus package, Fed policy and bank bailouts - Roubini says "the rest of the world is way behind the curve," in terms of doing the "right things" to confront the worst economic crisis since the 1930s.

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